Definition:Graphs where the distance between two consecutive points on both the X and Y axis represent the same value (e.g., the X axis and Y axis are both intervals of five).
Example of Equal-Interval Graphs: Line graphs, Bar graphs, Cumulative records, and Scatterplots.
Example of Non-Equal-Interval Graphs: Semilogarithmic Charts (Standard Celeration Chart).
Line Graph
Definition: A graph based on the Cartesian plane where a two-dimensional area is formed by the intersection of two or more lines forming a data path.
Example in a clinical context: A behavior analyst creates a line graph that displays baseline data and intervention data on the target behavior of hitting others.
Why it matters: Line graphs should be used when you want your data to communicate quantitative relations such as time or the order of responses in a sequence. Line graphs can include multiple data paths for different behaviors.
Bar Graph
Definition: A graph based on the Cartesian plane where there are no distinct data points representing responses through time.
Example in a clinical context: A behavior analyst displays data from a preference assessment that was conducted with a child.
Why it matters: Bar graphs are used to display a set of data that are not related to each other.
Cumulative Records
Definition: A graph that displays the cumulative number of responses emitted are represented on the vertical axis, where the steeper the slope of the response the greater the response rate.
Example in a clinical context: A teacher is conducting a manding program with a student and uses a cumulative record to display the student’s mastered mands.
Why it matters:Cumulative records demonstrate response frequency over a period of time, which helps to quickly conceptualize the rate at which a learner is gaining new skills.
Definition: A graph that shows the relative distribution of individual measures in a data set (e.g., aggression, sleep, etc.).
Example in clinical context:A behavior analyst creates a scatterplot of a client’s aggressive behavior to determine any temporal patterns between aggression and time of day.
Why it matters: Scatterplots communicates temporal relations of a behavior of interest if one exists.
Definition:An observation time that is divided into smaller series of brief time intervals where at the end of each interval, the observer records whether the target behavior occurred throughout the entire interval or not.
Example in a clinical context:A BCBA is collecting data ona child’s on task behavior in 10 second intervals. They only circle “yes” if on task behavior occurred in the interval if it occurred for the entire 10 seconds.
Example in a supervision/consultation context:A behavior analyst is consulting for a large company that produces medical technology. The company wants to increase work productivity. The behavior analyst targets on task behavior (e.g., attending to work assignments, not engaging in other non-work activities like checking phones) in one-minute intervals. If an employee engaged in on task behavior for the entire one-minute interval, the consultant records “yes.”
Why it matters:Whole interval recording is best used for measuring behaviors you want to see increase, since it provides a conservative rate of the behavior of interest.Whole interval recording tends to underestimate the rate of a behavior. Though not precise, it is useful when recording each occurrence of (a) behavior(s) is impractical.
Partial Interval Recording
Definition:An observation time that is divided into smaller series of brief time intervals where at the end of each interval, the observer records whether the target behavior occurred at any point during the interval.
Example in clinical context:A behavior analyst is conducting an observation on a client and is collecting partial interval data in five-minute intervals on the target behavior. The client engages in problem behavior two minutes into the interval and not again for the rest of the interval. The behavior analyst circles “yes,” because the target behavior occurred during part of the interval.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A behavior analyst is consulting for classroom where many of the staff members check their cell phones during work time. The behavior analyst observes the employees and collects partial interval data in 10-minute intervals. If an employee engages with their phone at any point during the 10-minute interval, the behavior analyst records that the target behavior did occur within that interval.
Why it matters:Partial interval data is best used for measuring behaviors that you want to see decrease, since it provides a conservative measure of the behavior of interest. Partial interval data tends to overestimate a behavior of interest. Though not precise, it is useful when recording each occurrence of (a) behavior(s) is impractical.
Momentary Time Sampling
Definition:An observation time that is divided into smaller series of brief time intervals where at the end of each interval, the observer records whether the target behavior occurred at the end of the interval only.
Example in clinical context:A behavior analyst is observing a client’s pacing behavior using momentary time sampling with an interval of 10 seconds. The behavior analyst indicates whether pacing behavior occurred only if the client was pacing at the very end of the 10 second intervals.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A teacher is receiving coaching on taking data on a particular student’s out-of-seat behavior while teaching the whole class. The consultant coaches the teacher to look at the specific student whenever the buzzer goes off (every 60 seconds) and immediately record whether the student was in her seat or out of her seat when the buzzer went off.
Why it matters:Momentary time sampling can overestimate or underestimate the rate of behavior. Since you do not continuously measure throughout the entire interval as you do with partial and whole interval, it’s smart to ensure that intervals are short enough to observe the target behavior frequently. Though not precise, it is useful when recording each occurrence of (a) behavior(s) is impractical.
Planned Activity Check (PLACHECK)
Definition: An observation time that is divided into smaller series of brief time intervals where at the end of each interval, the observer records whether the target behavior occurred at the end of the intervalonly in a group setting.
Example in clinical context:A behavioral consultant is collecting data on classroom of student’s on task behavior during their scheduled rotating activities using PLACHECK intervals of 30 seconds. At the end of the 30 second interval, the behavioral consultant observes if all the students in the classroom were in their assigned areas of the room. If not all students were, the behavioral consultant would indicate that the target behavior was not observed.
Example in a supervision/consultation context: A behavioral consultant is recording data on employee performance in 20-minute intervals. At the end of the 20-minute interval, the behavioral consultant looks up and observes if all employees are engaging in their assigned tasks (at their respective desks, oriented to computers, with work tasks on the screen). If all employees are engaging in their assigned tasks, the behavioral consultant records that the target behavior occurred during the interval.
Why it matters: PLACHECK allows the observer to collect data on groups as a whole.
Definition: The extent to which we are measuring what we intend to measure. In other words, do our data points actually represent what we think/say they do?
Example in everyday context: You’re trying to lose weight, and therefore decide to pay more attention to what you eat. You decide to look at labels to determine if certain foods are “healthy” or not. It would be a mistake to use one measure (for example, calorie count per serving) as a valid measure of whether a food is “healthy.” Caloric content is an invalid measure when trying to determine whether a particular item is healthy or not. Instead, you take a look at nutritional recommendations for someone of your age, gender, and activity level, and then determine whether food is healthy or not by looking at a range of data points – calories, ingredients, vitamin content, etc.
Example in a clinical context:A behavior analyst wants to collect data on how long a behavior of interest lasts. They collect data on duration. This is a valid measure because the behavior analyst wants to determine the duration of the behavior and uses an appropriate measure. An invalid measure would have involved, for example, taking frequency count data, which would not have indicated how long the behavior lasts.
Example in a supervision/consultation context:A supervisee is having trouble relating respectfully to non-behavior-analytic members of a treatment team. The supervisor and supervisee sit down to determine how to validly take data on the desired behavior of respectful communication. They operationalize their definitions, set criteria for mastery, and devise a measurement system aimed at capturing the behaviors under discussion.
Why it matters:When data are relevant to the phenomenon of interest, we can begin to use other scientific processes to better understand and intervene on improving socially significant behaviors. To ensure the best outcomes, we must be certain that we are treating the behavior that we want to treat and not some other behavior!
Reliability
Definition:The extent to which a measurement procedure produces the same value repeatedly. In other words, can you rely on it?
Example in an everyday context:You get on the scale to see how much you weigh. The first time you step on the scale, it says 140 pounds. You immediately step on the scale again and weigh yourself and the scale says 140 pounds. This is a reliable measure.
Example in a clinical context:Two behavior analyst are conducting a functional analysis on a client who exhibits self-injurious behavior. Each condition lasts for five minutes each and is repeated over the course of four consecutive days. Both behavior analysts use the same measurement tool to collect data during the functional analysis and their results are nearly identical over repeated measures. This measurement was reliable.
Example in a supervision/consultation context:A teacher is conducting a manding session with a student and two behavioral consultants are collecting interobserver agreement (IOA) data on the fidelity of the teaching procedures. Both consultants obtain the same IOA data, demonstrating a reliable value.
Why it matters:Highly reliable means that changes in data can be attributed to other variables, such as the intervention, rather problems within the measurement system itself. This is crucially important when evaluating the effectiveness of intervention!
NOTE: you can have reliability without validity. For example, a small child might step on a scale multiple times, and get a weight reading of 482 pounds each time. This is a reliable, but clearly not valid, measure.
Definition: A measure of the number of response opportunities (trials) needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance (the mastery criterion).
Example in everyday context:You are trying to get better at basketball in your backyard in order to play with your kids. However, your basketball skills are not very good yet! It takes you 18 tries to get a basket the first time you practice.
Example in clinical context:A client is learning how to tie their shoes in occupational therapy. The OT collects trials to criterion data on the steps required to complete the shoe tying routine during their daily sessions. It took 11 trials for the client to complete all the steps of shoe tying independently and accurately.
Example in supervision/consultation context: A supervisor is using a trials to criterion measure their supervisee’s ability to accurately define 10 definitions from Chapter 1 in the Cooper text. The supervisor begins each supervision session by quizzing the supervisee, and collects data on whether or not the supervisee answers the definition correctly. It took 8 trials for the supervisee to correctly identify all 10 terms accurately.
Why it matters:Trials to criterion can be used for assessing a learner’s competence in acquiring new skills as well as comparing efficiency of different treatment methods. If intervention A involves 8 trials to criterion, while intervention B involved only 2 trials to criterion, that information can be used to tailor instruction to the individual client in question.
Example in everyday context:You are describing to your friend about a “terrible date” you had the other night! Your friend asks you, “What did they do that was terrible?” You tell your friend that your date chewed with their mouth open and interrupted you when you talked about your job. Your friend can picture the behavior in their head and says, “Yeah, that does sound pretty terrible!”
Example in clinical context: A behavior analyst describes a client’s aggression toward property behavior in the following manner: “Tearing items off of walls, knocking over furniture, throwing or swiping items off surfaces.”
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor is conducting a training for supervisees. Before the training begins, the supervisor says to their audience, “During this training, please keep your phones out of your hands and off the table, so that we can focus on learning together.”
Why it matters:Topography tells us what the behavior looks, sounds and feels like. Topographical operational definitions should include objective descriptions of the behavior of interest.
Magnitude
Definition:The force, intensity and/or severity of a behavior.
Example in everyday context:You are at a concert with your friends. You friend begins screaming and shouting that your ears start hurting. This is a high magnitude of screaming behavior.
Example in clinical context:A behavior analyst is writing a behavior plan for a client that includes the operational definitions of their behavior. When describing property destruction directed at the wall, the behavior analyst indicates levels of severity: “mild severity: client makes forceful contact with wall using foot, leg, fist, arm, head, or side of body which does not leave a mark on the wall; moderate severity: same as above, but does leave a mark on wall such as chipping or buckling but without any punctures; severe intensity: same as above, but leaves a puncture or hole in wall leaving next layer of construction exposed, may or may not include client’s fist or foot going completely through first layer of wall construction.”
Example in supervision/consultation context: A supervisor is conducting behavior skills training with a practicum student on a NET lesson. The supervisor models the magnitude needed to produce a response from the client – this client doesn’t just need praise, they need “over the top” praise including loud voices and exaggerated facial expressions!
Why it matters: Magnitude measures how intense and/or severe a behavior can be. The magnitude of a behavior should be described in tandem with the topography of the behavior.
Target Terms:Duration, Latency, Interresponse Time (IRT)
Duration
Definition: The amount of time during which a behavior happens; long long the behavior takes.
Example in an everyday context:You read every night for 45 minutes before you go to bed.
Example in clinical context: A student engages in tantrum behavior for eight minutes during music class.
Example in supervision/consultation context: A supervisor assigns a practice quiz to their supervisee. The supervisee takes 18 minutes to fill out all their responses.
Why it matters:How long a behavior lasts matters a lot in determining whether it is harmful or beneficial. For example, taking a 20 minute nap in the afternoon is different from sleeping 6 hours during the day. Crying for a few minutes once on a while is different from crying in every class or meeting. Exercising for two minutes twice a week is unlikely to have a major impact on health or fitness, but exercising two hours per day might lead to an increased susceptibility to injury.
Latency
Definition: The time between an opportunity to emit a behavior and when the behavior is initiated.
Example in everyday context:Your phone beeps because you received a text message. You reach over to check your phone 30 seconds later.
Example in clinical context: A client is asked by a staff member to put their shoes on. The client sits in their bed for 15 minutes before they begin to move off their bed to put their shoes on.
Example in supervision/consultation context: A supervisor asks their supervisee, “What is the definition of latency?” The supervisee begins to recite the definition 2 seconds after being asked.
Why it matters:Decreasing latency can generally increase a person’s ability to both contact reinforcement more quickly and develop more adaptive social repertoires. For example, taking two hours to do something your boss asked you to do will probably be problematic, and taking 5 minutes to respond to a social greeting will likely not make you many new friends!
Interresponse Time (IRT)
Definition:The amount of time that elapses between two consecutive instances of a behavior. IRT is measured from the end of the first response to the beginning of the second response (and so forth if there are more than two responses).
Example in everyday context:You are texting a friend a lengthy amount of information regarding a mutual acquaintance. Because you do not want to write out one long message before sending, you instead write out a few sentences at a time and send them as they are written. The time in between hitting “send” and initiating the next test message is the interresponse time.
Example in clinical context:A patient is engaging in vocal outbursts which the behavior analyst is tracking. They record the time that elapses between the end of each vocal outburst and the beginning of the following one.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor is working with a trainee on entering behavioral data into a spreadsheet. The amount of time between the end of entering on data point and the beginning of the behavior of entering the next data point is the IRT.
Why it matters: Interresponse time is a frequent measurement used to examine the effects of schedules of reinforcement guided by rate of response.
Example in everyday context: Checking your phone 120 times would be the frequency that you checked you phone.
Example in clinical context:A BCBA is observing a student in their classroom and observes the them call out 17 times while sitting at their desk.
Example in supervision/consultation context: A supervisor observes their supervisee provide praise to a student when conducting an intensive teaching session and counts how often the supervisee says, “Nice job!” to the student. The supervisor counts 24 instances of the supervisee saying “Nice job” to the student.
Why it matters:Frequency is used when you want to count how many times a behavior is occurring. Behaviors may occur too often or too little and may need to be targeting for intervention.
Rate
Definition: A measure of how often a behavior occurs over an amount of time. Rate is like frequency, except with a time component added.
Example in everyday context: You eat 30 potato chips in 15 minutes.
Example in clinical context:A child engages in hand to head self-injury five times in 20 minutes.
Example in supervision/consultation context: A supervisee is completing 10 quiz questions in 11 minutes.
Why it matters:Rate is used when you want to know how much a behavior is occurring over time. In certain instances, rate may be targeted to increase or decrease depending on the behavior.
Percentage
Definition:A measurement expressed as a portion of each hundred.
Example in everyday context:Your phone tracking app indicates that you spend 42% of your daily phone time using social media.
Example in clinical context:A behavior analyst calculates that their client engaged in aggression in 20% of data intervals over the course of the day.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor takes data on a supervisee’s implementation of an FCT protocol. The supervisee delivered the intervention with 90% fidelity.
Why it matters:Percentage can be useful to get a snapshot of how a person’s behavior reduction or skill acquisition is progressing. Percentages have limitations because they do not tell us all necessary clinical information. For example, if a client is consistently getting 90% on letter identification, we don’t know if he is making “random” errors or if there is a pattern of skill deficit.
Definition: A way of taking data on a behavior of interest by observing the behavior itself and recording observable and measurable information about it.
Example in everyday context: You notice that your new puppy has had three toileting accidents in the past week. You know this because you observed the behavior directly.
Example in clinical context: A directly observes, and takes frequency data on, a client’s self injurious behavior in a classroom setting.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A consultant observes a teacher delivering whole group instruction. The consultant takes data on agreed-upon behavioral targets for the teacher, including the latency involved in responding to student’s questions.
Why it matters:Direct measures allow an observer to directly assess a client’s behavior in the environment, which may yield the most accurate and useful information about the target behavior.
Indirect Assessment
Definition: Data that are obtained by interviews, checklists and rating scales which include an individual’s subjective experience of target behavior. Indirect measures still gather information about the behavior of interest using interactions with people, but not through direct observation. Depending on the case, information could be gathered from the primary client themselves as well as other stakeholders.
Example in everyday context:You had your neighbor puppy-sit your new puppy while you were at work. When you return, you ask, “How did Pluto do with you today?” Your neighbor may give you a variety of answers, which may not be observable or measurable in nature. You may want to follow up with clarifying questions, such as, “Did he use the puppy pad? How many times?” and “When you went for a walk, did he pull on the leash?”
Example in clinical context:A behavior analyst is conducting a functional behavior assessment on a new client who demonstrates a significant amount of aggression towards others. The behavior analyst has direct support professional staff members complete a behavior checklist that identifies the time, location, activity and severity rating of the problem behavior throughout the day.
Why it matters: Indirect assessments provide information from the individual, family members and other caregivers that may not be available when conducting a direct assessment. Indirect assessment measures should not be used alone; rather, they make sense as part of an overall clinical case conceptualization process which also includes direct observation and assessment measures.
Product Measures
Definition:Measuring a behavior after it occurred by examining the effects the behavior produced on the environment. Unlike direct and indirect measures, product measures sometimes do not involve people at all.
Example in everyday context:You have asked your oldest child to pack his own lunches for the week as part of his chores, for which he earns an allowance. Rather than watching him make the food (direct), or asking him or others if the food was made (indirect), you determine whether the behavior occurred by examining the change in the environment which his behavior produced – in this case, five prepped lunches in the refrigerator.
Example in clinical context:A client is expected to complete math work before accessing a video game. The teacher examines the work and determines whether the behavior was satisfactory based on predetermined criteria regarding the product measurement (at least 10 separate math problems completed at 80% or more accuracy overall).
Example in supervision/consultation context:Supervisees were assigned to write five examples of positive reinforcement as their weekly homework. The supervisor measures whether this was done by reading the supervisees’ submissions.
Why it matters:Permanent product measures allow for accurate, complete and continuous data when warranted.
Definition: An observable, measurable description of a target behavior.
Example in everyday context: You are having a disagreement with your significant other. They tell you that you are “emotionally unavailable”. You ask, “What does that mean?” They define “emotionally unavailable” as “not responding to them when they need to talk, ignoring their attempts for affection, and not providing them with any reassurance.”
Example in clinical context: A clinician is working with a client who takes off their clothes inappropriately. The clinician writes, “Disrobing is contextually inappropriate full or partial undress. It is defined as removal of clothing that results in exposed skin when compared to client’s dressed state (excluding the hands, feet, and head) AND occurs (a) in the presence of another person who is not a caregiver AND/OR (b) in an area of the house other than the bathroom or her bedroom, unless expressly directed to do so by a caregiver.”
Example in supervision/consultation context: A behavior analyst consulting for a company regarding employee performance defines productivity as “completing all assigned work tasks to criterion levels within an eight-hour work period.”
Why it matters:Operational definitions describe exactly what we are measuring. Without operational definitions, our ability to collect and analyze data would be extremely hindered. We need our definitions to be objective enough that multiple people could take the same data on the same behavior.
