Definition: Withholding all reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior maintained by its consequences.
Example in everyday context: Allie connects with someone through a dating site, and they exchange multiple emails. Allie’s email-writing behavior is maintained by the consequence of receiving an email back. After a few weeks, Allie stops receiving any response to her messages.
Example in clinical context:A patient flicks the light switch on an off which makes the lights in their room go on and off. Hospital staff disconnect the light from the switch, so the patient can still flick the switch, but the light does not come on. Access to the reinforcer (lights on and off) has been withheld.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A student engages in screaming to gain attention from caregivers and peers. Previously, the teacher and other students would give the student a lot of attention for screaming. Today, the teachers and the rest of the class begin to completely withhold attention contingent on the screaming behavior.
Why it matters:Clinically, extinction should be considered as part of a comprehensive treatment package involving teaching replacement skills. Behavior analysts should prepare for extinction bursts and possibly extinction induced aggression when implementing extinction.
Unconditioned reinforcers and punishers are also sometimes called “primary” because they are shared by a whole species with no learning history required. They remain reinforcers throughout the lifespan.Basically, unconditioned reinforcers are things that we need in order to not die (or, in the case of sex, not die out as a species).
Things that become reinforcers or punishers based on learning history are sometimes called “secondary.” Their value can often fluctuate significantly across a person’s lifespan.
Unconditioned Reinforcer
Definition: Reinforcement that works without prior learning (in other words, living things come into the world with a need for these things “built in” to their biology).
Examples of unconditioned reinforcers:Food and water, regulated body and environmental temperatures, sexual stimulation.
Why it matters:Unconditioned reinforcers are part of every living things’ evolutionary heritage. In order for a species to survive, they must have access to unconditioned reinforcers. A strong motivation for these things is therefore crucial! When we are deprived of them, our bodies send up strong aversive messages about what needs to change (example: hunger, cold, etc).
Conditioned Reinforcer
Definition: A reinforcer which becomes reinforcing only after a learning history.
Example in everyday context:Access to a car or other vehicle functions as reinforcement for many people, due to their learning history of accessing the car (enjoying the ride, going to places with other kids of reinforcement, and/or escaping an aversive place).
Example in clinical context:A client enjoys completing puzzles in their free time. They were originally taught to use the puzzle by their mother, whose attention was highly valued by the client. Access to the puzzle serves as a conditioned reinforcer for this client.
Example in supervision context:Individuals undergoing supervision engage in behavior to access behavior analytic books, flashcards, and other study materials. These resources do not have inherent vale to all humans!
Why it matters:Conditioned reinforcers are not directly driven by any biological need of an organism, therefore not every organism shares the same conditioned reinforcers. Learning history and cultural norms influence what a person experiences as a conditioned reinforcer in any given context, and this will likely fluctuate over time. Behavior analysts should never assume that what they experience as a conditioned reinforcer is the same as what their clients experience as a conditioned reinforcer.
Generalized Reinforcer
Definition: A consequence that has been paired with access to many different reinforcing consequences until it took on reinforcing properties itself.
Example in everyday context:Money is an example of a generalized (you can buy many reinforcing things) conditioned (you were not born with a biological need for money) reinforcer (access to money increases behavior in the future under similar circumstances).
Example in clinical context:Token or point systems, when implemented with fidelity, pair the tokens or points with access to a wide array of “back-up” primary and secondary reinforcers (e.g., free time, preferred items/activities, certain privileges).
Example in supervision/consultation context:Many people have a learning history of praise from authority figures being paired with many other kinds of reinforcement, both conditioned and unconditioned (raises, good grades, reduction in aversive private events, etc). For these individuals, praise from a supervisor could function as a generalized reinforcer.
Why it matters:Generalized reinforcers are less susceptible to satiation because you can likely access something you’re motivated for using them, regardless of your motivational state. (For example, money is hard to satiate on because you can buy so many different things with it.) Therefore, generalized reinforcers tend to have reinforcing effects on behavior most of the time, and don’t require any particular establishing operation to establish their value.
Unconditioned Punisher
Definition: Punishment that works without prior learning (in other words, living things come into the world with a need to avoid these things “built in” to their biology).
Examples of unconditioned punishers: Extremely hot or cold temperatures, extremely loud noises, painful stimulation, starvation, extreme thirst, lack of sexual stimulation.
Why it matters:All organisms are born wanting to avoid stimuli that can harm or kill them. Unconditioned punishers are the product of an evolutionary process to keep organisms alive and reproductively viable.
Conditioned Punisher
Definition: A stimulus change that decreases the future frequency and occurrences of behavior that is based on an organism’s learning history with other punishers (in other words, organisms are not born wanting to avoid these things).
Example in everyday context:There is a woman in your office who works several cubes down from you. You find her to be particularly rude and have not had any pleasant interactions with her. Once, you went into the lunchroom while she was also taking her lunch, and she criticized your work performance in front of your friends. When you see her in the staff lunchroom now, you do not enter. This person’s presence serves as a conditioned punisher.
Example in clinical context:Staff at the residential treatment facility have to help a patient brush their hair every day. The patient dislikes having their hair brushed and tries to run away when it is time to have their hair brushed. Every time the client sees a hairbrush, they begin to scream. The hairbrush serves as a conditioned punisher to the client.
Example in supervision/consultation context:You are taking your ABA courses and you have a professor who gives the class pop quizzes and then engages in passive aggressive comments when students get answers wrong. You find yourself skipping class often. The professor’s presence has become a conditioned punisher.
Why it matters:Conditioned punishers acquired punishing properties through learning history, therefore not every organism shares the same conditioned punishers. Learning history and cultural norms influence what a person may regard as a conditioned punisher, and this will likely change over time.
Generalized Punisher
Definition: A consequence that has been paired with many different experiences of punishment until it took on punishing properties itself.
Example in everyday context: An individual has had many interactions with the police over the course of their life, and has contacted many different punishing consequences as part of these interactions (private events involving embarrassment/anger/anxiety, loss of money in the form of fines, loss of time for preferred activities due to being detained, loss of social standing among peers, etc). The interactions with law enforcement personnel now function as punishment for this individual.
Example in clinical context: A high school student with a history of significant reading difficulties and lack of appropriately trained teachers has had many aversive experiences involving books. For example, teachers and parents have ridiculed and yelled at her for not being able to sound out words, peers have excluded her from games because she is “stupid,” she has been deprived of preferred activities due to hours spent trying to complete homework, she has received additional punishment for aggressive behavior that happened as part of behavioral escalation triggered by the reading tasks, and she has experienced many aversive private events (shame, anger, resentment, hopelessness, etc). The presence of books is a generalized punisher for this student.
Example in supervision/consultation context:For many individuals, significant disapproval from authority figures (scowls, reprimands, written warnings, etc) have been paired with a variety of punishers, such as loss of privileges or job, low grades, loss of social standing among peers, and feelings (private events) such as shame, embarrassment, anger, etc. For these individuals, disapproval from a supervisor may function as a generalized punisher.
Why it matters:Stimuli becoming generalized punishers can have both highly valuable and highly maladaptive effects on a person’s life.
Automatic reinforcement is also sometimes called sensory reinforcement.
Automatic Contingencies
Definition: Behaviors maintained by automatic contingencies can be said to produce their own consequences, without another person changing the environment in any way in response to the behavior of interest.
Example in everyday context:Scratching an itch; rubbing sore muscles.
Example in clinical context:A patient engages in rocking back and forth on the floor to experience a reduction in anxiety (aversive private event). He is experiencing automatic negative reinforcement.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A student is sitting at their desk working on their assignments. They are repeatedly tapping their foot against the side of their desk. The teacher asks the student, “Why are you tapping your foot?” The student replies, “I like the sound it makes!”
Why it matters:All humans engage in some type of automatically reinforced behavior. On occasions, these behaviors may become disruptive to a person’s life. Automatically reinforced behaviors should not be targeted for intervention unless they are dangerous or causing harm to the client (e.g., head banging, eye-gouging, picking teeth, biting self) or significantly disrupting the lives of the client or others (loud vocalizations throughout the day, long ritualized behaviors that prevent learning adaptive skills).
Socially Mediated Contingencies
Definition: Contingency delivered in whole or in part by another person.
Example in everyday context:You get together with a group of friends. One of your friends asks you to “tell the joke” that always makes people laugh. You tell the joke and all of your friends laugh. Your joke telling behavior is maintained by socially mediated reinforcement (in this case, a specific kind of attention from friends).
Example in clinical context:A client who lives in a residential treatment facility engages in pinching staff. Each time the client engages in pinching staff, they give the client a break to “calm down.” The pinching behavior is maintained by socially mediated negative reinforcement (access to a break).
Example in supervision/consultation context: During group supervision, a supervisee engages in a lot of calling out and cutting people off. Every time they do this, the supervisor provides a mildly displeased facial expression. The supervisee’s behaviors of calling out and interrupting others decrease. Those behaviors were followed by a socially mediated positive punishment contingency.
Why it matters:As human beings, we have frequent interactions with other people. A large portion of our reinforcement contingencies are shaped by these interactions.
Definition: The presentation of a stimulus (punishment) follows a response, which then results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior.
Example in an everyday context:Your cat jumps up onto the counter which they are not supposed to do. You spray your cat with water from a spray bottle and say, “No!” You never see your cat jump up onto the counter again. The introduction of the spray bottle and saying “no” immediately following the behavior of jumping up on the counter resulted in a decrease in that behavior.
Example in clinical context: During an art activity, a client becomes aggressive toward a staff member on the unit. The staff member physically restrains the client and takes them to the seclusion room. The presentation of the restraint and seclusion procedure decreased the future frequency of the client engaging in aggression during art time, which indicates that restraint/seclusion functioned as punishment.
Example in supervision context:A supervisor conducts an observation of a teacher in their classroom. The supervisor tells the teacher that their instructional methods were “horrible” and heavily criticized their performance. The teacher no longer uses those instructional methods. The presentation of the verbal reprimand decreased the future frequency of the teacher using those instructional methods.
Why it matters:Positive punishment should be used as a last resort (i.e., reinforcement-based interventions have been or are likely to be ineffective ) when designing intervention and treatment. It is extremely important to understand that punishment may yield to unwanted side effects, such as avoidance of the person delivering punishment, as well as emotional and aggressive responding beyond what was previously seen. It is also important to be thoroughly familiar with federal and state laws regarding the use of aversives, restraints, and seclusion procedures.
Negative Punishment
Definition: The removal of a stimulus (punishment) follows a response, which then results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior.
Example in everyday context: You are at a restaurant by yourself and eating at a table. You get up to use the restroom. While you are gone, your server removes your plate of food. You return from the restroom to find that your plate of food is gone. In the future, you will be less likely to leave your food before you are done.
Example in clinical context: A client really likes country music and is permitted to listen to it during leisure time. The client is working on keeping their hands in a respectful place (away from their crotch) when in common areas of the milieu. Staff members turn off the music (remove stimulus) when the client puts their hands on their crotch, which decreases the frequency of that behavior in the future.
Why it matters: Some considerations regarding positive punishment also apply to negative punishment. One additional consideration when using negative punishment is that the client should also have plenty of opportunities to earn reinforcers, because otherwise it can become relatively easy to “take things away” until there is nothing left to lose.
Definition: A schedule of reinforcement where reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses occur.
Example in everyday context:You provide yourself with a handful of M&Ms after reading five pages of your textbook (FR 5).
Example in clinical context:A client earns TV time after folding ten clothing items (FR 10).
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor provides reinforcement in the form of specific praise statements to their supervisee when they correctly define seven ABA terms (FR 7).
Why it matters:When using a fixed ratio schedule, the person who is receiving reinforcement may become aware of how much work they have to do in order to get access to reinforcement. Behavior analysts should consider the size of the ratio and rate of responding when using a fixed ratio schedule.
Fixed Interval (FI)
Definition: A schedule of reinforcement where reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of time elapses.
Example in everyday context:You provide yourself with a handful of potato chips after you study for 45 minutes (FI 45).
Example in clinical context:A client receives access to a preferred item after engaging in a non-preferred task for two minutes (FI 2).
Example in supervision/consultation context:A classroom of students earns recess after sitting quietly for five minutes during read aloud (FI 5).
Why it matters:When using a fixed interval schedule the person who is receiving reinforcement may begin to understand how long they have to work in order to get reinforcement. Behavior analysts should consider the size of the ratio and rate of responding when using a fixed interval schedule.
Variable Ratio (VR)
Definition: A schedule of reinforcement where reinforcement is provided variably after an average amount of responses are emitted.
Example in everyday context:You spend about 120 minutes studying each night. You find something interesting or new after reading two pages, five, pages, two pages, three pages, four pages and so on. On average, you contact reinforcement (interesting/new information) after reading three pages (VR 3).
Example in clinical context:A patient is working hard in their occupational therapy session using a beading activity to work on dexterity. The OT provides reinforcement for every third, second, fourth, first, first, and second response (putting a bead on the string). On average, the OT is providing reinforcement for every second response (VR 2).
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisee is conducting an intensive teaching session with a student under the observation of their supervisor. The supervisee delivers reinforcement after the student responds correctly every second time, fourth time, first time, and third time. On average, the supervisor calculates that the supervisee provides reinforcement to the student for every two responses (VR 2).
Why it matters:Variable ratio schedules are the strongest basic schedule of reinforcement, since the learner cannot identify how may responses they have to emit before contacting reinforcement. This increases motivation for the learner to continue to engage in the behavior they need to in order to earn reinforcement. (“Keep them guessing” for steady responding!)
Variable Interval (VI)
Definition: A schedule of reinforcement where reinforcement is provided variably after an average amount of time has elapsed.
Example in everyday context:You are studying for approximately 180 minutes per night. You provide yourself with reinforcement for every 10 minutes, 12 minutes,12 minutes, and 13 minutes spent studying. On average, you provide yourself with reinforcement every 11 minutes (VI 11).
Example in clinical context:A client is sitting and watching TV without engaging in any problem behavior. A staff member provides reinforcement to the client after every three minutes, two minutes, five minutes, and three minutes. On average, the staff member is providing the client with reinforcement every three minutes (VI 3).
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor is observing their supervisees quiz each other on their SAFMEDS. The supervisor provides reinforcement in the form of bonus points on the quiz every five minutes, four minutes, six minutes and eight minutes they spend studying their SAFEMEDS. On average, the supervisor reinforces the supervisees every five minutes (VI 5).
Why it matters:Variable interval schedules are the second strongest basic schedule of reinforcement since the learner cannot identify how much time has to elapse before they will experience reinforcement. This increases motivation for the learner to continue to engage in the behavior in order to earn reinforcement.
“Positive” and “negative” in science refer to something being added or taken away. These terms have nothing to do with values (such as “good” versus “bad”).
Positive Reinforcement
Definition: A response is followed by the presentation of a stimulus that results in an increase in behavior under similar circumstances. The stimulus acted as positive reinforcement.
Example in everyday context:You go to your nearby café and order your favorite specialty coffee drink. You give money to the barista and they hand you your coffee. You have learned that ordering a specific drink (response) is followed by the delivery of an amazing caffeine-related sensory experience (presentation of the stimulus). You are likely to order the same thing in the future.
Example in clinical context:A behavior analyst is conducting mand training with a client. Each time the client makes the correct request for an item, (e.g., saying or signing “water”) the behavior analyst delivers the item. This serves as positive reinforcement for the client, and they continue to say or sign “water” when they would like some water.
Example in supervision/consultation context: A supervisor is observing their supervisee conduct a manding session with a student. The supervisor provides specific praise to the supervisee in the moment (“I love how quickly you honored that mand! So important.”) The supervisee continues to conduct subsequent manding sessions with fidelity.
Why it matters:Ethical guidelines for behavior analysts state that interventions should include reinforcement strategies. Behavior analysts should continue to conduct preference and reinforcer assessments with their clients to identify what items and activities can serve as positive reinforcers. It is very important to understand that how we feel about a something does not necessarily predict whether it will function as reinforcement, as other variables, such as competing reinforcers, must be considered. (For example, just because I like peanut butter cookies does not mean that I would be willing to get up at 2:45 AM to make some.) Also, how others feel about something is definitely not indicative of whether it will be effective as reinforcement! (For example, I tend to increase my behavior is my supervisor praises it; however, for others, praise can be neutral or aversive.)
Negative Reinforcement
Definition: A response is followed by the removal of a stimulus that results in an increase in behavior under similar circumstances. The stimulus acted as negative reinforcement.
Example in everyday context:You wake up in the morning with a terrible cramp in your neck. You turn your neck right and left to crack it, which causes the pain to go away. Each time you wake up with a cramp in your neck, you will engage in the response (cracking your neck) to remove the pain.
Example in clinical context:A group of patients are engaging in leisure time in the milieu. One of the patients begins to play loud music from a stereo. Another patient becomes agitated and yells, “Turn that off right now!” The patient playing the music turns off the stereo. The response (yelling) was immediately followed by the removal of the stimulus (loud music), which will likely increase the patient’s behavior to yell again when the music is too loud.
Example in supervision/consultation context: A behavior analyst is teaching a student how to say “no” to unwanted items using picture exchange cards. When the behavior analyst presents an item that the student does not want, the student gives the behavior analyst the “no” picture card. The behavior analyst removes the unwanted item. This increases the student’s behavior of using the “no” picture card when presented with a non-preferred item.
Why it matters:Through negative reinforcement, people escape or avoid aversive events. Negative reinforcement is very powerful and is sometimes the main paradigm at play in clinical situations involving treatment of interfering behavior.
Definition: A learning process wherein a previously neutral stimulus (which would not alter behavior) acquires the ability to elicit a response (alter behavior). Respondent behavior is controlled by its antecedents.Respondent conditioning is also known as classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning (after the scientist who famously paired food with the sound of a bell to eventually make dogs salivate at the sound of a bell with no food present).
Example in everyday context:The fire alarm at work was previously a neutral stimulus. Then, you had a fire drill while you were standing right next to the alarm! The sound hurt your ears and was quite unpleasant. Through respondent conditioning (pairing of the neutral fire alarm with the aversive sound), you now cringe each time you see the fire alarm even when it is not going off.
Example in clinical context: During physical therapy, the physical therapist has a client complete various physical activity, which the client greatly dislikes. Each time the client passes the physical therapy room, the client begins to shake and sweat. The previously neutral stimulus (the physical therapy room) through respondent conditioning, elicits the client’s response of shaking and sweating.
Example in supervision/consultation context:You are just beginning your practicum as a clinical trainee. As soon as you walk in, you supervisor instructs you to begin a quiz about applied behavior analysis, which you do not know anything about yet! You begin to feel sweaty and nervous. Through the process of respondent conditioning, the next time you see your supervisor (a previously neutral stimulus) you become very sweaty and nervous. (Note: Obviously, we shouldn’t do this to people! Instead, pair yourself with reinforcement at the beginning of any relationship with a client or colleague!)
Why it matters:Although respondent behaviors make up a small percentage of behaviors that are of interest to behavior analysts, respondent learning occurs in clinical and day-to-day contexts, and impacts behavior.
Operant Conditioning
Definition: Consequences that result in an increase or decrease the frequency in the same type of behavior under similar conditions. Operant behaviors are controlled by their consequences.
Example in everyday context: Your cell phone lights up and you see a text from an acquaintance. You respond to the text message. The conversation continues through text, and you enjoy the interaction. You are likely to respond next time the person texts you.
Example in clinical context: A school uses a bell to signal when it is time to transition to the next class period. When the bell rings, a client receives praise if they initiate packing up their belongings within 10 seconds. They are more likely to respond quickly to the transition bell in the future.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor is researching how to make supervision a more interactive experience for their supervisees. The supervisor decides to provide points on the next quiz for increased participation (asking and answering questions). The supervisees begin to participate more during group supervision.
Why it matters:Behavior analysts are mainly (but not exclusively) focused on operant behavior when they design interventions.
Definition: Events in the environment that affect the behavior of an individual.
Example in everyday context:You are normally very talkative during work gatherings. When your boss is present, you are less talkative during work gatherings. Your boss serves as a stimulus that changes your behavior.
Example in clinical context:A client with a history of trauma sees a therapist’s shirt that reminds them of their abuser’s shirt, and begins to cry. The shirt (stimulus) had an impact on behavior based on individual learning history.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor is present during a classroom observation. The teacher becomes very enthusiastic in their tone of voice and engages the students more than usual. The presence of the supervisor is a stimulus and signals the availability of punishment in the event of a poor performance.
Why it matters:All living things react to events in their environment.
Stimulus Class
Definition: A group of stimuli that are similar along one or more dimensions (for example, they look or sound similar, they have a common effect on behavior, or they occur at similar times relative to the response).
Example in everyday context:You pick up your phone when you hear it ringing, even if your child changed your ring tone to a really weird song. The ring tones coming from your phone act as a group of stimuli that all have the same impact on behavior (you pick up the phone).
Example in clinical context:You are teaching a student how to identify groups of objects. You show a student a banana, kiwi, strawberry and plum. You ask the student, “What are these?” The student says, “Fruit”, even though they are all different fruits.
Example in supervision/consultation context:You teach a staff member to provide help for a client when the client signs for help, says “Help,” or exchanges a picture symbol for help. You are establishing a stimulus class for the staff person. The different stimuli (modes of communication) produce a common behavioral result (provide help).
Why it matters: It is very important for all of us to engage in behavior under the control of a variety of related stimuli in our daily lives. (For example, we need to pull over for emergency vehicles, even though they do not all look and sound exactly the same.) It is also helpful to understand how stimulus classes can contribute to socially significant clinical problems, so that we can then solve them more effectively. (For example, a client may call all animals “Woof woof,” or may act afraid whenever they hear a loud noise because it sounds like a gunshot to them.)
Definition: An organism’s interaction with the environment. (“Dead man’s test” refers to the fact that a behavior is anything a dead person cannot do. Examples: breathing, walking, crying, reading, etc.)
Example in everyday context:Opening a door is an example of a behavior because it is an interactive condition between an organism (you) and the environment (the door).
Example in clinical context:A child is handed tokens and puts them on a token economy board for later exchange.
Example in supervision/consultation context:During supervision, your supervisor asks you to complete a quiz on Chapter 1 of the Cooper text. You pick up your pencil to begin your quiz.
Why it matters:Behavior analysts have to have a proficient understanding of what constitutes a behavior in order to accurately identify, assess and treat socially significant and target behaviors.
Response
Definition: A specific instance of behavior.
Example in everyday context:You are walking down the steps and you trip over your cat. You yell “aahh!” The response in this instance is you yelling “aahh!”
Example in clinical context:A direct support professional is walking next to a client. The client reaches out, perhaps to touch or grab the staff. The staff member quickly darts out of the way. The behavior of darting out of the way is a response, as is the reach from the client.
Example in supervision/consultation context:A behavior analyst walks into a school and smiles at the front office staff person when they make eye contact. Smiling is a response.
Why it matters:Specific instances of behavior, when targeted for intervention, must be accurately defined and measured.
Response Class
Definition: A group of responses that produce the same effect on the environment. (In other words, several behaviors that have the same function.)
Example in everyday context:Sending a text, messaging a person on social media, and calling a person on your cell phone is a group of responses that may produce the same effect on the environment- you reach the person you wanted to connect with (socially mediated positive reinforcement).
Example in clinical context: A patient engages in head banging, screaming, and hitting staff which all produce the same effect on the environment (escape from their non-preferred activities).
Example in supervision/consultation context:A supervisor provides feedback to their supervisee in the form of vocal and written feedback. Both forms of feedback produce the same effect on the environment, if they both change the supervisee’s performance in a similar way.
Why it matters:Different responses may have the same effect on the environment. In other words, “I do different things, but the feedback I get from the environment for those things is the same.”) In order to provide excellent services, it is often critical to accurately identify responses that have the same effect on the environment.
Definition: A collection of facts about the observed event(s) that can be quantified, classified and examined for possible similarities to other known facts. (“I know what the behavior looks/sounds like.”)
Example in everyday context:A friend calls you up and asks how your day was. You begin to describe to your friend that you had a terrible day; you spilled your coffee all over your shirt and you were late to work. You follow up with maybe if you had woken up earlier, you would not have been rushed which is what led to the spilled coffee. You have provided your friend a quantifiable description of your terrible morning.
Example in clinical context:A parent comes to a clinic and is interviewed by the lead BCBA® about their child’s self-injurious and aggressive behavior. The parent describes to the BCBA that the aggressive behavior only occurs when the mother is interacting with the other siblings in the home. The parent also describes that the self-injurious behavior only occurs when the child is denied access to highly preferred activities. The parent has provided the BCBA with a description of the events that are associated with self-injurious and aggressive behavior exhibited by the child.
Example in supervision/consultation context:You are conducting a behavioral observation of a child in their math class.The child engages in crying behaviors. You observe that the behavior only occurs when the child is told by the classroom teacher that they “have to complete their math worksheet before they can play” with a preferred toy. You also observe that the child does not engage in crying behavior during any other subject, and only asks for access to the preferred toy during math class. This reflects an accurate description of the event(s) being observed.
Why it matters:Description is an important first step in science because the knowledge gathered through the systematic observation of an event of interest can help us ask better questions and develop the groundwork for further understanding about the event and/or similar events. If we do not accurately describe what is happening in ways that can be quantified and classified, we can’t move forward scientifically.
Prediction
Definition:Repeated observations reveal that observing other events can consistently result in accurately anticipating an outcome. (“I know when the behavior will occur.”)
Example in everyday context:You observe your neighbor collect their mail at the end of their very long driveway every afternoon. You also observe that on afternoons that it is raining, your neighbor carries an umbrella over their head. You can predict that each time it rains, your neighbor will carry an umbrella while they collect their mail.
Example in clinical context:A client on the inpatient unit engages in verbal aggressive behavior (e.g., screaming, cursing, verbal threats) toward staff and other patients on the milieu. After several days of observation, the nurse on the unit notices that each time the client requests and is denied access to alcohol and cigarettes, they engage in verbal aggression. The nurse predicts that each time the patient is denied access to alcohol and cigarettes, they will engage in verbal aggression.
Example in supervision/consultation context:You are observing a child in their classroom who engages in screaming and banging on their desk when the teacher does not pay attention to them. After several days of observing this same interaction, you can predict that when the child is not receiving attention from the teacher, they will engage in screaming and banging on their desk.
Why it matters:Prediction is an important aspect of science because it helps us establish relations between events. Prediction greatly expands how useful knowledge about a phenomenon can be for us. Remember, however that correlation does not mean causality. For example, strong correlation exists between hot weather and increased incidence of drowning deaths, but we cannot assume that hot weather causes people to drown. Causality means that A happenedbecauseof B. Correlation means that A and B move together in some way (either in the same or opposite directions).
Control
Definition:A specific change in one event can be reliably produced by scientific manipulation of another event. This change is not due to other factors or variables. (“I can turn this behavior on and off like a faucet.”)
Example in everyday context:Every morning you wake up and prepare your morning coffee. You push the “brew” button on your coffee maker, and coffee pours into the pot. In this instance, control of the production of coffee is reliably produced by pushing the “brew” button and not by any other action (e.g., opening the refrigerator or answering your cell phone).
Example in clinical context:A client in a residential treatment facility engages in self-injurious behavior, and has been referred for a functional analysis. During the analysis, the client does not engage in self injury during the play (control), attention, or tangible conditions. During the demand condition, however, the client engages in self injury every time they are presented with a demand. Removing the demand consistently results in termination of the self injurious behavior.
Example in supervision/consultation context: You have worked with a Life Skills teacher to support a child who initially requested food all day long. You and the teacher worked together and have taught the child to make requests for food using stimulus discrimination procedures. When a red cue card appears, requests for food are not honored and the child has learned not to request. When a green cue card appears, the child requests food, and these requests are granted. The absence of requests for food when the red cue card is present, and the increase in requests for food when the green cue card is present, demonstrates that the requesting behavior is under control of the red and green stimuli.
Why it matters:It is the ability to demonstrate control over two events (independent and dependent variables) that provides the kind of scientific understanding that is the most valuable and useful to the development of a technology for changing behavior.
When we say “control” in science, we mean it in the sense described above. The term “control,” however, can also bring up concerns about manipulating people or limiting their freedom in pursuit of a scientific agenda. It is possible to get so focused on controlling variables in a scientific sense that the overall goal (helping the client) is no longer the primary focus. Ethical ABA services seek to demonstrate control over relevant variables in order to develop the best individualized supports for clients.
