미국에서

A contract should be terminated once the tasks it is intended to support are being accomplished independently and proficiently. If either party is unhappy with a contract, it is at risk of being abandoned before this is achieved and the terms should be renegotiated. Contracts should include both short and long-term goals. Short-term rewards can be provided for completion of smaller portions of the expected performance, and long-term rewards for accumulated success or for reaching stages of achievement. 

DISADVANTAGES OF CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS: 

1. Contracts cannot be used with individuals who do not have the requisite cognitive skills. 
2. An imbalance of authority may compromise the contractee's sense of ownership. 
3. Research does not exist to support contingency contracts over imposed contingencies.

The reward needs to be an appropriate quality and quantity for the size of the specified task. For example, a trip to the park may be a suitable reward for completing the day's chores, and a new video game might be offered as a reward for completing chores at least four days per week for a month. When the reward will be delivered needs to be specified. 

Contingency contracts are not necessarily useful in teaching new behavior, but they can be used to increase participation in programs designed to do so. Although they specify that other people will reinforce behaviors demonstrated by an individual, they can be used to teach self-management skills as they provide a way for the contingency manager to reinforce behavior that should happen more independently, such as completing chores. 

The three essential components of a contingency contract are a description of the task, a description of the reward, and the task record. 

ADVANTAGES OF CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS: 

1. One is more likely to follow a contract if they've had part in creating it.
2. The contractee is likely to negotiate a less aversive consequence. 
3. The contract often has a provision for renegotiating the terms. 
4. A contract makes the contingencies explicit. 
5. A contract structures the relationship among the parties (i.e., defines the roles and required actions of the participants). 
6. Contracts increase the likelihood that reinforcement will actually be delivered.

1. 물을 싫어해서 욕조에 들어가서 목욕하는것을 싫어하는 아이

- 욕조에 버블과 장난감으로 가득채워넣는다.

2. 8장 숙제를 해야 하는 아이가 escape  하지 않고 숙제를 다 하게 하려면

- 한번에 한장씩 쉬운것부터.

3. best example of manipulation of antecedent

캠퍼스에 쓰레기떨어지는 것을 방지하기 위해 빌딩 문 앞에 쓰레기통을 비치한다. 

4. 담배를 피우지 않게 하기 위해서는

-담배를 항상 차 안에 두는것이 아니라 트렁크에 두도록한다. 

Differential reinforcement refers to (a) the procedure used in shaping new behaviors and (b) differential reinforcement procedures such as DRO or DRA used to reduce problem behavior. 

DRA is an umbrella term that refers to reinforcement of behaviors that are appropriate alternatives to a target behavior. DRI (Incompatible) is a subtype of DRA in that the alternative behavior is incompatible with (or cannot be done at the same time as) the problem behavior. More recently emphasis has been placed on selecting alternative behaviors that serve the same function as the problem behavior. Often these are communicative (i.e., DRC) behaviors (e.g., "May I have a cookie," as the alternative to stealing cookies) The term DRC (Communication) is not included in many textbooks. 

DRA is an umbrella term that refers to reinforcement of behaviors that are appropriate alternatives to a target behavior. DRI (Incompatible) is a subtype of DRA in that the alternative behavior is incompatible with (or cannot be done at the same time as) the problem behavior. More recently emphasis has been placed on selecting alternative behaviors that serve the same function as the problem behavior. Often these are communicative (i.e., DRC) behaviors (e.g., "May I have a cookie," as the alternative to stealing cookies) The term DRC (Communication) is not included in many textbooks. 

DRA/DRI is more effective than DRO. It has the advantage of building appropriate behavior and puts the focus of the behavior manager on appropriate behavior. DRO and DRD have a major disadvantages of focusing on the inappropriate behavior and providing attention for the inappropriate behavior.  

The "dead man's test" - If a dead man can do it, it is not a behavior. DRO and DRD base the reinforcement contingency on not emitting a behavior, which fails the dead man's test. This creates several disadvantages with DRO and DRD. 

1. No behavior is taught. 
2. It risks reinforcing unwanted behavior. 
3. It accentuates the negative behavior by monitoring it. This can reduce the behavior manager's attention on appropriate behavior and can provide attention to the inappropriate behavior. Adult attention is almost always a positive reinforcer of the behavior it is focused on, so DRO and DRD risk reinforcing the behavior that is being reduced with attention. 
4. DRO and DRD are less durable because the replacement behavior is not developed which will receive natural reinforcement. DRA/DRI increase a replacement behavior and DRL shapes the temporal relationship of a repeating behavior.

Drl is same space-responding DRL.

DRL (or spaced-responding DRL) can be used to reinforce responding at a low rate. When the goal is to eliminate a problem behavior, DRO or DRD is used and the criterion or time interval is often varied with time as the problem behavior decreases. DRD (DR of Diminishing rates) is a new and perhaps improved label for Full-Session DRL or Interval DRL, because both full-session DRL and interval DRL have a goal of diminishing or eliminating a behavior.

Differential reinforcement can use positive or negative reinforcement. DRA with negative reinforcement is sometimes referred to as differential negative reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRNA). Negative reinforcement can also be used for incompatible behavior (DRNI). DRNA/DRNI uses escape from a task demand for the reinforcer. 

DRO is relatively rapid at reducing problem behavior compared to extinction alone. It also does not require the development of a new behavior as in DRA or DRI.

The term "differential reinforcement" refers to responding that meets a particular criterion gets reinforced while responding that does not meet that criterion does not get reinforced. This procedure is used (a) in the shaping process to develop new behaviors and (b) in procedures such as DRO or DRA that are used to reduce problem behavior. Do not confuse "differential reinforcement" with specific types of differential reinforcement (e.g., DRO, DRL, DRI, DRA, DRH). 

DRD (Differential Reinforcement of Declining rates) is used by Mayer et al. (2012). Cooper et al. (2007) refer to this type of DR as full-session DRL and interval DRL. In this course, we will use the term DRD because it is a more accurate description. DRD has the purpose of reducing or eliminating a behavior. The term spaced-responding DRL (Cooper et al.), DRL (Mayer et al.) or DRL (low rate) refers to DR with the objective of producing a lower rate of responding, but not eliminating the behavior. This would be used on a behavior such as eating too rapidly. Obviously we do not want the behavior to be eliminated. In this course, we will use the term DRL for this type of DR. 

DRO typically has a less dense schedule of reinforcement compared to DRA/DRI and it is relatively simple to use with a minimum amount of training. 

prompt를 받을때까지 아이가 아무것도 하지 않거나

prompt 하면서 하려고 하는것 .

모방을 하고 echoic 반응이 있는 자폐 아이에게서 흔히 보이는 현상

일시적이기는 하나  therapist는 prompt  fade  하도록 노력해야 함. 

With multiple schedules of reinforcement, behavioral contrast may occur when a reduction in reinforcement on one schedule decreases the rate of the behavior on that schedule, and also increases the rate of the behavior on an unchanged schedule. The change in responding produced either by a decrease in reinforcement (including extinction) or an increase in punishment (or both) on one schedule changes the rate of the behavior on other schedules in the opposite direction

Behavioral contrast occurs when the rate of reinforcement for a behavior changes in one setting resulting in a change in the rate of that behavior, as well as a change in the opposite direction of the behavior in another setting with no change in the rate of reinforcement in the second setting. For example, a child teases a peer at school to get their attention, and teases his brother at home. The peer at school begins to ignore this behavior, so teasing the peer decreases while teasing the brother increases. 

Behavioral contrast is a name for a behavioral rate change that occurs in a direction opposite from that happening within the treatment setting, despite constant conditions in the non-treatment setting. Behavioral contrast has been observed in many cases when punishment is part of the treatment package.

When DRO contingencies are applied to behavior in a particular setting, the decrease in behavior in that setting may cause an increase in the same behavior in other settings. It is normally good practice to monitor the target behavior non-treatment settings, as well as to apply the same procedures, as this would not only control for behavior contrast, but facilitate generalization of treatment effects as well. 

A change in the schedule of reinforcement in one situation or setting may affect behavior in the opposite direction in other settings where schedules of reinforcement remain unchanged. This effect is referred to as behavioral contrast. For example, a child's father goes on a trip, leaving only his mother at home to attend to him. As a result, attention-seeking behavior decreases at home, but they increase at school although conditions in school have not changed. 

With multiple schedules of reinforcement, behavioral contrast occurs when a change in the rate of responding produced by a change in the schedule of reinforcement on one schedule changes the rate of the behavior on other schedules in the opposite direction. Therefore, an increase in reinforcement on one schedule increases the rate of the behavior on that schedule, and also decreases the rate of the behavior on unchanged schedules. 

Punishment procedures often provide immediate negative reinforcement for the behavior change agent because it usually stops an instance of the behavior. However, that does not mean that it decreases its frequency-the more important measure. Therefore, you should check the data. Note also that punishment usually results in an immediate decrease in behavior. Extinction results in an initial increase, followed by a decrease. 

A conditioned aversive is a stimulus that has acquired punitive properties by being paired with something aversive. In this case, the caregiver has been paired with the reprimand. You want to increase the discriminability between the behavior and its consequence. This is achieved by delivering the reprimand immediately and consistently, making sure he understands exactly what behaviors result in the reprimand, and providing lots of noncontingent reinforcement.

Behavior contrast is the change in the rate of a behavior in different settings when under different schedules of reinforcement/punishment. That is, behavior punished in one setting may increase in another setting.

Punishment doesn't teach new skills. You should be concerned that with the loss of one means of relating to peers (albeit an inappropriate one), what behaviors, if any, have replaced teasing. It may be that the child has become withdrawn or has adopted other inappropriate behaviors. It may also be that appropriate behaviors have increased in strength. If not, the child will need to be taught social skills. 

Aversive events must be ongoing or imminent for both negative reinforcement and punishment to be effective. As with punishment, the aversive stimuli required for negative reinforcement can produce behavioral side effects like escape, avoidance, and aggression. The term aversive control is used to describe interventions using either or both of these processes. 

A conditioned aversive is a stimulus that has acquired punitive properties by being paired with something aversive. In this case, the caregiver has been paired with the reprimand. Individuals will avoid conditioned aversive.  

Possible disadvantages are emotional responses (e.g., crying, anger), escape/avoidance, aggression, modeling, perpetuation of punishment (i.e., continued use of an ineffective procedure due to negative reinforcement afforded to the caregiver), individuals becoming conditioned punishers, no establishment of alternative behavior, need for the presence of the punishing agent, presumed punisher is actually a reinforcer, withdrawal, and behavioral contrast. 

A possible disadvantage of punishment is